What's Left Unsaid: How Behavioural Influences Can Impact Eyewitness Memory

     Eyewitness evidence is arguably one of the most frequent and important types of evidence encountered in a criminal case. Eyewitness testimony has demonstrated to have an enormous impact in the criminal field as it contributes immensely to the conviction of an individual. However, eyewitness error is one of the leading causes of wrongful convictions. For example, the United States has seen more than 250 DNA exonerated cases (where DNA has proved the innocence of a convicted prisoner), and alarmingly, eyewitness error occurred in more than 75% of these cases, thus making it the primary contributing factor to wrongful convictions (Wise et al., 2009; Innocence Project, n.d.).

 How fast were the cars going when they smashed?

           Our memories are malleable, such that they can be altered or influenced by post-event information like behavioural cues. Behavioural cues can be verbal (wording of a question) or nonverbal (such as gestures). A great deal of research has shown the tremendous impact verbal influence has on eyewitness memory. To illustrate this further, let us briefly turn to a study by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974). In this study, participants were required to watch a short video of a car accident and answer questions following the clip. One of the tasks was to identify how fast the cars were going. However, when the researchers manipulated the verb (e.g. “how fast were the cars going when they smashed/bumped/hit/contacted?”), participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed estimated the cars to be traveling approximately 40.8 mph. Interestingly, when participants were asked how fast the cars were going when they contacted, the estimation of speed dropped to 31.8 mph (Loftus & Palmer, 1974). This research is critical as it demonstrates how simple manipulation of the verb in a sentence can impact an individual’s memory and response, supporting the flexibility of our memories and how they can be influenced by verbal cues.

Nonverbal Influences: What the research tells us.

            Without question, most of the scientific research regarding eyewitness memory focuses on verbal influences. Therefore, it is imperative that we turn our attention to nonverbal influences (gestures) in order to determine if such behavioural cues have a similar effect on eyewitness memory. In fact, when accompanying the question “did the suspect have facial hair?” with a beard gesture, witnesses incorporated the information presented through the gestures into their original memory of the event, such that they reported seeing a beard (Gurney, 2015). Through his research, Daniel Gurney (2015) successfully demonstrates that nonverbal influences are comparable to verbal influences, such that misinformation (false information) can be conveyed through gestures and speech. In his study, Gurney (2015) had 92 participants watch a video of a staged crime. The clip showed a girl waiting at a bus stop when a man entered and stole a phone from the bag on the ground beside her. A few bystanders were present in order to have the scene appear as real as possible. Next, participants were asked critical questions about the video regarding the victim’s appearance, the stolen item, where the suspect put the item, etcetera, while being provided with verbal or nonverbal suggestions.

These suggestions included factual information (information congruent with the crime scene) or misleading information (information that was false). The verbal questioning conditions presented the critical information through speech. For example: “the item stolen was a phone” (factual), or “the item stolen was an iPod” (misleading). The nonverbal questioning conditions presented the critical information through gestures, while the speech remained unbiased. For example: “an item was stolen” + phone gesture (factual), or “an item was stolen” + iPod gesture (misleading). A control condition was used, which involved the interviewer asking unbiased questions without any gestures, for example, “an item was stolen”. Participants were required to respond with a “correct”, an “incorrect”, or an “I don’t know” response.

           

Factual Information vs. Misleading Information:

            The results indicate that individual responses were affected by the type of questioning. Therefore, when presented with factual information, participants were more likely to give a correct response. Nonetheless, when presented with misleading information, participants were more likely to give an incorrect response. This is crucial to note because, with regards to eyewitness testimony, officers do not usually know the correct facts (hence statements gathered from witnesses). Therefore, if officers fail to ask open ended questions, they could potentially influence the memory of the eyewitness. For example, if an individual witnessed the crime shown in the experiment and could not remember what was stolen out of the bag, but the officer asked if it was an iPod (instead of asking openly, “what was stolen?”), it is probable that the eyewitness could have been influenced, leading them to recall that the stolen item was an iPod, thus providing inaccurate conclusions. Interestingly, the verbal and nonverbal misleading groups differed significantly from the control group. What this means, is that unbiased questioning in the control group elicited more correct responses, whereas misleading questions or gestures led to more incorrect responses. So in order to increase the likelihood of obtaining correct or accurate responses, it is best to ask unbiased questions, allowing the eyewitness to freely recall the event from memory without any behavioural influences.

          

   So, is there a difference between verbal and nonverbal influences?

            No. Verbal and nonverbal influences do not differ significantly from each other. However, the absence of variation among the two should not to be overlooked. In fact, what this means is that nonverbal cues (gestures) are just as likely to influence memory as verbal cues. This is imperative to understand because whereas speech is easier to control and standardize, gestures are harder to inhibit. We have already seen a well-established verbal misinformation effect, such that when presented with misleading information, people are more likely to give an incorrect/inaccurate response. So, if gestures are just as likely to influence responses, this increases the impact of behavioural influence on eyewitness memory. Further, it has been suggested that people integrate information from gestures into speech; eyewitnesses may use information from gestures to reconstruct their memory. For example, when presented with the statement “my brother went to the gym” with a “shooting a basketball” gesture, listeners actually extracted the “basketball” information from the gesture, but also remembered it as part of the speech (Gurney, 2015). Gestures are an important part of human communication and may be automatic or implicit, occurring outside of our awareness, thus harder to control.Therefore, suggesting the ability of gestures to influence one’s memory, making them critical candidates for influence in eyewitness memory and error, potentially leading to wrongful convictions.

            

Going Forward:

            This information can prove to be useful for law enforcement, should they be provided with this knowledge. Having said that, education and training programs can be created to raise awareness of behavioural influence. Further, understanding how easily memory can be altered by not only verbal cues, but nonverbal cues as well, is crucial for law enforcement, especially when eyewitness testimonies have a major effect on convicting an individual. Such programs can aid officers in asking open ended questions, along with helping them develop strategies in attempt to control the use of gestures. However, as mentioned previously, gestures sometimes occur without awareness, proving to be difficult to eliminate or inhibit. As such, it might be more beneficial to create a standardized method to ensure the reduction or elimination of behavioural influences, thereby reducing eyewitness error, ultimately reducing wrongful convictions. 

-          Brittany Haynes

References:

Gurney, D.J., (2015). What’s left unsaid: How nonverbal influence compares with verbal influence. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 22 (3), 465-473. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10,1080/13218719.2014.985624

Loftus, E.F., & Palmer, J.C., (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13 (5), 585-589. Retrieved from PsycINFO

Wise, R.A., Pawlenko, N.B., Safer, M.A., & Meyer, D., (2009). What US prosecutors and defence attorneys know and believe about eyewitness testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 1266-1281. doi:10.1002/acp.1530

Innocence Project. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2015, from http://www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction/eyewitness-misidentification

Success in University: It's Not Just About Marks

The adjustment from high school to university can be a tough transition for students, both academically and mentally. High school educators make great efforts to prepare students for the bigger work load and new learning environment. However, what is generally missing is the equal emphasis on self-care and preparation for the emotional experiences that may lie ahead. Universities generally foster an independent learning environment, which may contrast from what students experienced in high school. This is not to say that universities are disadvantaging students. But, students could be better prepared or simply made more aware of the ways in which university may differ from previous experiences in more ways than just academic expectations.  

Have you ever felt lonely?

My guess is that everyone reading this blog article has experienced loneliness before. This feeling is very common among university students, often experienced when the individual's need for social support and relationships is not met. This does not mean they have absolutely no social interaction or close friendships; it is all about your own perception. The feeling of loneliness is subjective and therefore it is different for everyone. Generally, loneliness means that one feels unsatisfied with their social relationships. Loneliness is linked to depression, psychological distress, and lower learning ability and achievement, therefore it should be given more attention when one is feeling this way.

Have you ever felt emotionally drained or pessimistic?

Another issue university students may face is feeling burnout. Burnout has mainly been studied in terms of its effect on people in the workplace and less on university students. Recently, a concept specifically for students called learning burnout is defined as feeling doubtful, inadequate, and exhausted due to academic pressures, excess homework, and other school-related stress. Students with learning burnout may feel they are not competent in their work, detached from social situations, emotionally drained, and have a negative view of their learning experience.

Loneliness and learning burnout experiences are increasing for students in university. University is a very high-stress environment and is also a big transition from high school or even from taking time off from school. An article written by Bryce Stoliker and Kathryn Lafreniere in 2015 explains that university fosters independence and this is related to diminished prior support systems. Having more pressures and less social support is linked to the experiences of loneliness and learning burnout that many students encounter. These experiences are associated with further mental and physical health problems, as well as a strains on their academics. The same article notes that students are at a greater risk of feeling loneliness and burnout if they are in their 2nd or 3rd year of university versus 1st or 4th year! This may be due to being in the middle of a program, feeling emotionally exhausted and thinking graduation is a long time away. 

Stoliker and Lafreniere’s study sought to find out if loneliness and burnout was associated with poor academic experiences and stress. 150 undergraduate students from an Ontario university participated in the study where they were assessed on their levels of stress, learning burnout, loneliness, and academic performance. Their results found that stress was linked to loneliness and exhaustion. Pessimism and loneliness also predicted university students' level of engagement regarding their academics. This all goes to show that academic performance has to do with a lot more than simply going to lectures and studying. We all have to take care of our mental health as well!

Students with high feelings of loneliness are likely to also feel high levels of burnout, and vice versa. The two issues have a relation to one another, therefore it is helpful to look at the two problems together, and their connections academic experiences in university. The results from the current study show that loneliness and burnout are issues that need more attention by university students. With final exams around the corner, any student readers should keep the following things in mind to fight feelings of loneliness and learning burnout:

1. You are not alone! Loneliness is a common feeling experienced by many students around you. Don’t belittle your feelings of loneliness, but rather understand that it is a common issue that only makes us all more similar. 
2. Stay connected with supportive people who are already in your life. University tends to diminish social support systems, therefore be aware of this and make attempts to maintain a good support system that existed prior to university to counteract the feelings of independence stemming from the university atmosphere. 
3. Value and enjoy the time you have to yourself. Sometimes a break from social interaction can give you more time to focus on your own thoughts and emotional well-being. 
4. Take breaks! Plan your time wisely to meet deadlines, but also schedule in breaks to give yourself a little time to cool down and step away from any feelings of stress. 
5. If feelings of loneliness and learning burnout persist, and start to impact your daily functioning, seek counselling! There are counselling services on university campuses that are there to help.

-Shang Rashid

References

Stoliker, B. E., & Lafreniere, K. D. (2015). The influence of perceived stress, loneliness, and learning burnout on university students' educational experience. College Student journal, 49(1), 146-160. Retrieved from https://www-lib-uwo-ca.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/cgi-bin/ezpauthn.cgi?url=http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/docview/1689381925?accountid=15115

Genetic Vulnerability to Depression: A Blessing and a Curse?

Research has previously identified certain genes that may play a role in the development of depression and anxiety.

Specifically, individuals carrying the short variant of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene have been found to be more susceptible to depression and anxiety. But, they are only more susceptible if they have experienced adverse life events.

Simply put, people who have experienced recent stressful events or were maltreated during childhood, are more likely to develop depression and anxiety if they possess this version of the gene. What’s more, is that individuals carrying the other version of the 5-HTT gene - the long variant - have been found to be at no greater risk for psychiatric problems following adverse experiences than people not exposed to stressful events.

All of this so far has lead to the short variant of 5-HTT having been labelled as a “vulnerability” or “risk” gene in the scientific community. In the media at large, 5-HTT has been called the “depression gene.”

A recent study conducted at the University of Münster in Germany may indicate otherwise, however. The findings suggest that instead of being a vulnerability gene, the short variant of 5-HTT may actually be a “sensitivity to the environment” gene.

In particular, possessing the short variant of 5-HTT not only seems to increase vulnerability to adverse experiences, but may also increase the likelihood that a person will benefit from positive experiences.                                     

Researchers tested out this hypothesis using male mice that had been genetically modified, so that their 5-HTT gene activity closely resembled that of humans carrying the short variant of it. They were then either provided with the beneficial experience of living with a female mate, or were housed alone (neutral experience). Mice that were not genetically modified, and more closely resembled humans with the long variant of the 5-HTT gene, were also provided with one of the two experiences.

Next, researchers tested the anxiety-like and exploratory behaviour of all the mice using behavioural tests. For example, in one of the tests used - the open field test - the mouse was placed in an unfamiliar enclosed arena for 5 minutes, while a researcher recorded what it did.

Given that mice genetically modified to resemble the short 5-HTT variant have been previously shown to exhibit increased anxiety-like and decreased exploratory behaviour following adverse experiences, it was predicted that they would display the opposite profile after positive experiences. Indeed, this is what the researchers found. 

Genetically modified mice who cohabited with a female showed reduced anxiety-like behaviours and increased exploratory behaviours. In comparison, the behaviour of mice who were not genetically modified did not differ based on whether or not they received this beneficial experience.

In other words, whether or not the mice benefited from the positive experience was dependent on whether their 5-HTT gene activity resembled that of humans with the short variant or the long variant.

All of this goes to support the idea that possessing the short version of 5-HTT may not be an entirely bad thing after all. Although research indicates that it places people at higher risk for depression and anxiety following adverse or stressful experiences, it may also bestow them with greater potential to benefit from positive ones. For better or for worse, some people may be more sensitive to their environment on the basis of their genes.

This may have important implications for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Because individuals with the short 5-HTT variant seem to be more susceptible to environmental influences, both good and bad, they may respond better to psychotherapy than people with the long variant. A recent study of low-income mothers suffering from depression indicates that this may indeed be the case.

In any case, it seems that for some their genetic makeup may be both a blessing and a curse. The same gene that contributes to suffering can also be of great advantage, all depending on the cards you are dealt.

-Kathryn Pierce

Reference

Kästner, N., Richter, S. H., Lesch, K., Schreiber, R. S., Kaiser, S., & Sachser, N. (2015). Benefits of a “vulnerability gene”? A study in serotonin transporter knockout mice. Behavioural Brain Research, 283, 116-120. 

Smartphone Use Linked to Negative Consequences in Mental Health

Most of us can relate to when we walk downtown or ride a city bus, and observe that the majority of the people around us are using a smartphone. It is estimated that there is a whopping 1.5 billion smartphone users around the world. Not to mention, some people spend almost nine hours a day using their cell-phones. These days smartphones are not just used as a form of communication but they offer a wide variety of features including games, access to the Internet, specifically, social networks, and for a navigation tool. With the increasing use of smartphones, one may wonder what the negative physical and psychological consequences are.   

Recent research has found an association between smartphone use and mental health, specifically depression and anxiety. To investigate this relationship, Demirci, Akgönül, and Akpinar (2015) assessed 319 university students using the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) and then separated the participants into three groups: smartphone non-users, low smartphone use and high smartphone use. High smartphone use or smartphone addiction was defined as the overuse of smartphones to the extent that it disturbs a person's daily functioning. The groups were then measured and compared on their sleep quality, and depressive and anxiety symptoms.  

The results revealed that depression, anxiety and daytime dysfunction were significantly higher in the group where individuals used their smartphones a lot. Furthermore, individuals who used smartphones a lot were found to have higher levels of depression than individuals in the low smartphone use group. Although high smartphone use did not have a direct association with quality of sleep, it was found that higher levels of smartphone use and poor sleep quality predicted depression/anxiety. Moreover, depression and anxiety also predicted poor sleep quality. 

Although these results are correlational, it is important to still note that the high use of smartphones is a risk factor for depression and/or anxiety which can in turn lead to sleep problems. Overall, these findings can be used with individuals with depression and anxiety by monitoring their smartphone use so the severity of their disorders do not increase as a result of an associated smartphone addiction.

The results aren't necessarily what one would like to hear, but they are definitely a wake up call to the many smartphone users that rely on this multifaceted form of communication every day. Not only is smartphone use associated with mental health but in turn it could effect people's daily lives in areas such as academic performance and social interactions. With this in mind, you should reconsider the amount of time you are spending on these devices and instead spend more time in real life social interactions! You should look at ways in which you could reduce your smartphone use. For example, you could set boundaries to where you can use your smartphone, turn off your phone before bed, and limit the amount of time you spend per day replying to text messages. Besides, people survived before smartphones were invented anyways right? 

Demirci, K., Akgönül, M., & Akpinar, A. (2015). Relationship of smartphone use severity with sleep quality, depression, and anxiety in university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(2), 85-92. doi:10.1556/2006.4.2015.010 

-Janelle Steckley

The Trick To Making Memories Last

         Remembering information about what occurs within the course of a day is an essential element of the human experience. Whether we are trying to put names to the faces we’ve encountered throughout the day or simply trying to remember directions to a friend’s house, we all rely on our ability to accurately remember and recall events. Further, remembering events is influenced by many variables, making memory failures a fact of reality and a common issue faced by everyone at one point or another.

          Memory lapses can occur within very minor or very important contexts and our ability to recall what we think we know in both scenarios depends upon the same mental structures. But how can we exert control over what we remember? Additionally, how does memory recall work and how can we improve our ability to remember events and avoid memory failures? The answer to these questions lies in thoroughly rehearsing newly acquired information and giving yourself ample time to consolidate the information at hand.

         Bird et al. (2015) performed a study to assess participant’s capacity to remember complex life events by manipulating how they rehearsed the information. Two experiments were carried out, both of which instructed participants to watch 21 short videos on the internet.  In experiment one, each participant was asked to watch a video and then verbally recall as many details as they could remember. In experiment two, participants watched the same videos and were asked to silently recall the content of the video to themselves. In both experiments, after watching a video, the participants were shown a checklist of details about the video and the researchers disclosed the information that they successfully recalled or missed.

             To measure the amount of information that the participants remembered from the videos, they were tested on the content of the videos at different times over the course of a month. The results revealed that active rehearsal, both verbally and mentally, produced much higher rates of recall from the videos compared to the control groups who did not rehearse the information from the videos. Specifically, within a seven day period, participants in experiment one (the verbal rehearsal condition) recalled twice as many details compared to those who did not rehearse the information. In experiment two (when the rehearsal was mental) participants recalled three times as many details than those who did not rehearse the content in the video. The researchers also discovered that the brain region involved in the rehearsal process was the posterior cingulate cortex. Specifically, the posterior cingulate cortex played an important role in linking the information gained from an event with prior knowledge already stored in ones memory. Thus, an experience is first encoded and by rehearsing the information, an individual is able to solidify certain details making the memory more accessible and vivid.

          The rehearsal process is clearly a fundamental function within the process of remembering and can subsequently impact our day to day interactions. By simply paying attention to the details of an event and giving yourself ample time to think over what just happened or by saying the details of an event out loud, the memory can last longer and stay much more vivid. 

Citation: Bird, C., Keidel, J., Ing, L., Horner, A., Burgess, N. (2015). Consolidation of complex  event via reinstatement in posterior cingulate cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 14426-14434. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI:1774-15.2015

Lifetime Trauma and Resistance to Antipsychotic Treatment in Schizophrenia Patients

Schizophrenia is a severe and debilitating mental disorder. It is often characterized by breaks from reality, including hallucinations (hearing voices, seeing things that are not really there) and delusions (fixed beliefs that are not true, such as believing one has superpowers). These symptoms are identified as positive symptoms and taken together, are known to be what is called psychosis. Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia also experience negative symptoms. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2013), negative symptoms are comprised of diminished emotional expression and a lack of self-initiated purposeful activities such as low mood, decreased ability to experience pleasure, and the lack of interest in social activities, to name only a few. Approximately 21 million people worldwide are diagnosed with schizophrenia (Schizophrenia, n.d.). Further, it has been reported that 5-6% of people with schizophrenia die by suicide, and roughly 20% attempt suicide (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Despite these alarming facts, fortunately schizophrenia is treatable. With the proper use of antipsychotic medication, psychotic symptoms may be reduced, providing the individual with the ability to function more effectively and appropriately (Schizophrenia, n.d.). Although antipsychotics have been shown to be beneficial in reducing psychotic symptoms, there is a major issue regarding treatment resistance.

What does treatment resistance mean and what are some underlying factors?

Treatment resistance is commonly understood as a failure to adhere to treatment guidelines, such as discontinuing the use of medication before clinically advised, or failure to seek out treatment when needed. Conversely, in their recent study, Ahmed Hassan and Vincenzo De Luca (2015) examined another form of treatment resistance. This type of treatment resistance involves patients who comply with the treatment guidelines. These individuals take the required dose of medication to alleviate their psychotic symptoms, however their bodies resist the effects of the antipsychotic medication. As such, their psychotic symptoms persist, despite adhering to the clinically recommended treatment procedure. 

Ahmed Hassan and Vincenzo De Luca (2015) examined the relationship between childhood and lifetime adversities in schizophrenia patients and the effects it has on the resistance to antipsychotic treatment, suggesting possible underlying factors that contribute to treatment resistance. In this study, patients with schizophrenia were required to complete the Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire in order to reliably assess traumatic experiences throughout the patients’ lifetime. Their results reveal that patients who resisted treatment reported an average of 4.5 lifetime traumatic events, with over half of these patients reporting 4 or more traumatic experiences (traumatic events included, but not limited to: sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and emotional neglect). In contrast, non-treatment resistant patients reported only 2.5 traumatic lifetime events, on average (Hassan & De Luca, 2015). In short, there is a positive correlation between lifetime adversities and treatment resistance among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. What this means, is that as the number of traumatic events in one’s life increases, so does their likelihood of resisting antipsychotic medication, should they be diagnosed with schizophrenia. This poses as a problem because while these individuals may be struggling to cope with the effects of their traumatic life experiences, they may also continue to face the terrifying symptoms of schizophrenia despite having taken their medication.

Not only is it important to address exposure to traumatic events in effort to reduce treatment resistance, it is also important to address such events as early as possible as they pose as a potential risk factor for developing a psychotic illness (Hassan & De Luca, 2015). Life adversities, while not the only factor, could contribute to the development of a mental illness, including psychosis. Thus, these traumatic events should not be overlooked.

So, now what?

Well, this new knowledge provides insight as to why this form of treatment resistance may occur in individuals who comply with the treatment process. This information informs us that focusing on and addressing underlying factors, such as traumatic life experiences, may aid significantly in reducing treatment resistance. Furthermore, the fact that individuals who experience more lifetime trauma may be more likely to experience treatment resistance could imply some sort of biological changes in the brain. These potential changes could result from the traumatic experiences, possibly inhibiting any effects of the antipsychotic medication. It is imperative that individuals who are diagnosed with schizophrenia are not just prescribed medication and sent on their way. Further ongoing treatment (such as therapy) is required. In fact, it is common for schizophrenia treatment to include both antipsychotics and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a common method of therapy used by psychologists to treat a wide range of mental illnesses. This therapy identifies and addresses maladaptive thoughts and guides people to alter such thoughts, allowing for a healthier and more adaptive thinking style. As mentioned, CBT is useful in treating schizophrenia as it used to address the positive and negative symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, low mood, etc). However, given what we now know with regards to how lifetime adversities effect resistance to antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia patients, it is important that CBT also focuses on any trauma a patient experiences, in attempt to reduce the likelihood of resistance to treatment. Doing so might equip them with certain abilities and techniques needed in order to cope with not only their traumatic events, but also the illness. In addition, it might be wise to incorporate a comprehensive review specifically on the patient’s exposure to traumatic events during a clinical assessment. This could enable doctors to recognize how traumatic events might influence a patient’s likelihood of treatment resistance to antipsychotic medication.

It would be wise for future research to address biological differences in the brain between those with fewer lifetime trauma and those who have experienced a lot of trauma throughout their lifetime. It would be interesting to examine any possible brain differences between the two (fewer lifetime adversities and a lot of lifetime adversities) that might affect the effects of the antipsychotic treatment. Even more so, future research might benefit from examining how CBT effects the likelihood of treatment resistance among patients who have experienced lifetime trauma. If the CBT is directed at addressing the individual’s traumatic experiences, it would be compelling to examine whether or not this reduces treatment resistance among the individual.

Yeah, but…

Of course this does not go without saying that there are some challenges that may be faced in addressing this issue. For example, reporting on past traumatic events is retrospective, which could involve some error recalling specific events, especially traumatic ones. Further, every trauma experienced by an individual is going to effect them differently. Nonetheless, it is imperative that we understand some of the underlying factors influencing treatment resistance and even more so, if this information can generalize to other disorders beyond schizophrenia. Just by acknowledging this new information, we can be cognizant of this issue, allowing us to be one step closer to a solution.

Brittany Haynes

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed). Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association.

Hassan, A.N., & De Luca, V. (2015). The effect of lifetime adversities on resistance to antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research, 161, 496-500. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.048

Schizophrenia. (n.d.). Retrieved November 8, 2015, from http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/schizophrenia/en/